Story of Indian Money - XVI - Regional Sultanates' Coinage c. 1347-1687 A.D.

The Dehli Sultanate reached its zenith under Muhammad bin Tughluq almost covering the entire Indian sub-continent under him as the South Indian Hindu kingdoms collapsed under sustained campaigns by the Sultanate's cavalry. However, the empire grew too unwieldy and the centre couldn't hold the vast and remote areas. However, another factor which worked against it was Muhammad bin Tughluq's eccentric and cruel nature which alienated his nobility and created the right atmosphere for dissensions both during and after his reign.
Thus, the Bahamani Sultanate and the Madura Sultanate came to be born in his lifetime. The former was born under the patronage of his Deccani nobles who combined forces under a Persian soldier-of-fortune, Zafar Khan who replaced the hesitant leader of the initial rebellion Ismail Shah and ascended the throne as Alauddin Bahaman Shah.  The latter was too short-lived yet has left good numismatic evidence of the same.
Thus began the Bahamani Sultanate with its own coinage majorly in silver and copper of which the latter was more profuse during one hundred and eighty years of existence which saw its fragmentation into five Deccani Sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda.
The coinage of these successor states was as colourful as their chequered history with variation in legends related to their Shiite faith and even adoption of South Indian gold pagodas and Persian larins (hairpin shaped coins with the name of the king originated in Laristan region of Persia) as testimony of their existence. 

After Muhammad bin Tughluq's death more successor states evolved in his Northern and Western territories in the form of Jaunpur in North India, Gujarat, Khandesh and Malwa in Western and Central India respectively.
Even the erstwhile Rajput kingdoms regrouped under Rana Kumbha (d. 1468) and Rana Sanga (d. 1527) later but have left little numismatic evidence.
The successor states of Gujarat, Khandesh and Malwa lasted longer till the rise of the Mughals under Akbar the Great while their coinage evolved on local pattern. Malwa was under the Khaljis evolved its own coinage in the three metals, gold, silver and copper tankas with square shape as the preferred shape and beautiful mint marks as the hallmark of their coinage.
Gujarat on the other hand, developed its own coinage, popularly known as Mahmudis (after Mahmud Begada I, the Great Sultan of Gujarat) which had a longer circulation than the Sultanate due to its forging by later rulers as a defiant gesture to the Mughals!

Bengal Sultanate had its own long history of defiance of the central rule of the Dehli Sultans and had its own history of two hundred and thirty odd years from the period of Illyas Shah (r. 1342-1358) to the Afghan dynasty of Karranis. The Sultanate also had an uninterrupted coinage in silver which was intermittently transmitted to the coffers of the Dehli Sultans or held back for circulation. The coinage from Bengal was the probable inspiration for Illtutmish's silver tanka which became the standard coin of the Slave dynasty.

Kashmir was the only sultanate which did not come under the sway of the Dehli Sultans probably on account of its inaccessible location. It however had its own unique silver coinage called Sasnu (square in shape weighing around 6 grams with a twisted wire border around its legends) ; the Sasnu was complemented by the copper Kaserah (also weighing 5.5 to 6 grams having a line with a central knot between its legends)

Thus, each regional sultanate of the pre-Mughal period tried to lend a unique stamp on the numismatic history of the Indian sub-continent by playing around with metrology, calligraphic styles and shapes of the coins. The coins are a reflection of local calligraphic development as in the case of Jaunpur Sultanate whose sultans preferred the use of Tughra calligraphy a convoluted form of writing style developed in Turkey under the Ottoman Sultans.
The regional sultanates were gradually absorbed into the growing Mughal Empire which engulfed all of them in stages of its own evolution in a period stretching from 1530-31 when Humayun beseiged Malwa and Gujarat and also temporarily took over Bengal till 1686-87 when Aurangzeb engulfed and absorbed the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Golkonda in 1686 and 1687 respectively.

Silver Tanka of Ala-ud-din Bahaman Shah founder of Bahamani dynasty styled  on Ala-ud-din Khalji's tanka  A.H. 758 c.  1357-58 A.D. 

Silver Larin of Ali Adil Shah II 1071 A.H. c. 1660-61 A.D.

Gold Tanka of Jaunpur Sultan Ibrahim Shah with Tughra Calligraphy on obverse

Silver Half Tanka of Mahmud Shah 'Begada' from Muhammadabad Champanir with long drawn out legends

Silver Tanka of Bengal Sultan Fakhr-al-din Mubarak Shah Hazrat Sunargaon  Mint

Silver Sasnu of Hussain Shah of Kashmir Sultanate A.H. 970 c.  1562-63 A.D.

Story of Indian Money XV - Islamic States of Dehli Sultanate & their Coinage c. 1192 - 1555 A.D.

Mahmud Ghazni (r. 998-1030) began raiding the Indian territories on a regular basis between 1001 and 1021 A.D. and established a Ghaznavid province in Punjab consistent with his Afghan territories in 1028 A.D. He issued coins with the Kalima (Islamic expression of faith) inscribed in Arabic with the title ‘Leader of the faithful’ on the obverse. His Indian coins have reverse inscriptions stating ‘dinara struck for cities captured during the Holy War with India’. One Silver Dinara issued by Mahmud in 1028 A.D. from Mahmudpur (Lahore) has a unique bilingual legend with the Kalima in Arabic on the obverse and its translation in Sanskrit on the reverse! 

Mahmud’s successors adopted the ‘Bull-and-Horseman’ type modifying it into a ‘Bull-and-legend’ type with the name of the ruler in Kufic Arabic script. 
The Ghaznavids were deposed by Ghorids in Ghazni and finally evicted from Lahore by the Ghorid brothers, Ghiyath-uddin and Muizz-uddin in 1186 A.D. Muizzuddin or Muhammad Ghori (known as Muhammad bin Sam on his coins) succeeded in laying down the foundations of the Dehli Sultanate by defeating Prithviraj Chauhan at the Battle of Tarrain in 1192 A.D.
Muhammad bin Sam copied the ‘Bull-and-Horseman’ coin called Dehliwalas with either side devoted to Arabic inscriptions and issued them in billon and copper. Muhammad  also copied the Lakshmi type gold coin when he captured Kashi from Jayachandra, the famed rival of Prithviraj Chauhan, with the Nagari legend ‘Sri Mahamada bini saam’! In Bengal, his general Bakhthiyar Khilji initiated a new gold prototype with the obverse image of a charging Turkish horseman with a mace and the Nagari legend ‘Gaud Vijaye’ and a reverse Arabic inscription with Muhammad’s titles.
Muhammad was succeeded by his slave general Qutb-uddin Aibak (r. 1206-1210); however, no coins are found in his name or his immediate successor, Aram Shah. 
Aibak’s ultimate successor, his manumitted slave, Shams-uddin Illtutmish (r.1211-1236) reintroduced the Islamic coins with Kalima as silver tankas while continuing the copper and billon Dehliwalas. The most important feature of these ‘Islamic’ coins was the total abhorrence of images and the use of exact date and place of issue. 
Illtutmish also began the trend of invoking the Abbasid Caliph on his coins to ensure his religious sanction. This trend was continued by all his successors; notably Rukn-uddin Firoz his son (r.1236) Jalalat Raziya his daughter and the first woman to ascend the Dehli throne (r.1236-1240). 
The Dehli Sultanate's 'Slave Dynasty' continued under Illtutmish’s clan till 1266 when the last ruler, Nasir-uddin Mahmud was replaced by Balban, the Chancellor of the Sultanate. 
Balban was succeeded by his grandson, Qaiqubad who was replaced by his minor son, Kayumarth. 
The dynasty was finally replaced by a rank outsider, Jalal-uddin Firuz Khilji (1290-1296); Firuz and his successor, Rukn-uddin Ibrahim (r.1296) continued the coinage of the previous regime. 
However, Ibrahim was soon deposed by Firuz’s ambitious nephew, Ala-uddin Muhammad Khilji (r.1296-1316) who soon embarked with his army to capture riches from Deogiri, Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan; he also captured rich booty from Warangal and Dwarasamudra through his general, Malik Kafur. Ala-uddin and his successor Qutb-uddin Mubarak issued heavy gold and silver coins. 
Ala-uddin issued his coins with the haughty title ‘the second Alexander, the right hand of the Caliph’ while Qutb-uddin used the arrogant title ‘the supreme head of the faith, the Caliph, Lord of heavens and earth’ in Arabic.

 Qutb-uddin was replaced by Ghiyath-uddin Tughluq (r.1320-1325) who continued the Khilji coinage. However, his successor, Muhammad bin Tughluq (r.1325-1351) ushered in an era of unsurpassed numismatic glory by producing numerous types of gold coins with fine Islamic calligraphy. He also increased the weight of his coins after his South Indian campaigns.

However, his greatest numismatic achievement was his attempt to introduce ‘token currency’ in 1329 A.D. when he attempted to replace silver and billon coins with a token equivalent in copper validated by the state! He engraved "He who obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate" to scare and fascinate people into accepting the new system. 

However, the coins were forged by locals causing a collapse in the system till the Sultan agreed to replace the copper coins with actual silver ones causing a heavy drain on the exchequer. Muhammad also issued a variety of coins with religious legends including the name of the first four caliphs; he also revived the use of Kalima on his coins. Muhammad faced local revolts towards the end of his rule with the founding of Bahmani Sultanate in Deccan in 1347 A.D. which issued its own coinage.  

Muhammad’s successor, Firuz Shah Tughluq (r.1351-1388) issued some coins with the name of the ruling Caliphs but had to sanction the use of billon coins due to the reduced revenues during his reign.

Firuz’s successors witnessed the formation of local Sultanates in Gujarat (1391), Jaunpur (1394) and Malwa (1392). 

However, the greatest disaster was the invasion by Timur’s army in 1398 A.D. which reduced the Sultanate’s domains to the outskirts of Delhi. Mahmud, the last Tugluq ruler died in 1414 A.D. inviting counterclaims from two powers; Daulat Khan Lodhi the governor of the Doab region and Khizr Khan Sayyid.

Khizr Khan succeeded in the power struggle leading to the founding of the Sayyyid dynasty. 

The Sayyids refrained from issuing coins initially but the second ruler Mubarak Shah issued a novel coinage followed by his nephew Muhammad who preferred the Tughluq standard in billon. Alam Shah, the last ruler issued fewer coins and gave way to Bahlol Lodhi in 1451.

Bahlol Lodhi retained only copper and billon coins with a new formula of issuing coins extolling the virtues of the ruler on both sides and seeking divine blessings for his rule; this type was preferred by his successors, Sikandar and Ibrahim.

Ibrahim Lodhi was killed in 1526 A.D. in the first battle of Panipat by Zahir-uddin Muhammad Babur, the exiled ruler of Farghana who claimed descent from both Timur and Genghis Khan laying the foundations of the Mughal Empire.

 

Silver Tanka of Mahmud of Ghazni with Kalima in Arabic and Sharada Script

Gold Tanka of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam issued along from Ghazna mint with the name of the Caliph Al-Nasir 

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Silver Tanka of Illtutmish in name of Caliph al-Mustansir

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Gold Tanka of Ala-ud-din Khalji with title 'Sikandar Sani' 'Second Alexander

Copper 'Token' Tanka of Muhammad bin Tughluq with legend 'Man ata Sultan faqd ata-ur-Rahaman' 'If I obey the Sultan, I obey God' 

Story of Indian Money - XIV Rise of Rajput clans (1000-1200 A.D.)

Rise of Rajput clans (1000-1200 A.D.)

 The tenth century saw the rise of smaller regional powers like Chapas and Chaulukyas of Gujarat, Paramaras of Malwa, Kalachuris of Tripuri, Chandelas of Khajuraho, Gahadavalas of Kashi, Tomaras of Dhillika, Chahamanas of Ajayameru (Ajmer) collectively called the Rajput clans by modern historians.
Of these, the Chaulukyas adopted the imperial Gurjara-Pratihara coinage as their prototype whereas the Chahamanas and Tomaras adopted the ‘Bull-and-Horseman’ type of Hindu Shahis. The Paramaras of Malwa adopted the Gurjara-Pratihara type by replacing the fire altar on the reverse with a battle scene between a horseman and two soldiers.

The Kalachuris of Tripuri (near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh) initiated a new gold coin under King Gangeyadeva (1015-1040) bearing the image of seated Goddess Lakshmi flanked by elephants on either side on the obverse with the inscribed name of the king on the reverse in Devanagari. 
Gangeyadeva’s prototype was copied many other dynasties of Central India in the following centuries like the Chandelas of Khajuraho, the Yadavas of Bayana and the Gahadvalas of Kashi who replaced the king’s name on the reverse side in Nagari script. 
The Lakshmi coin type as it is called by modern numismatists was even copied and issued by Muhammad Ghori (known as Muhammad bin Sam on his coinage) when he captured the Gahadvala ruler, Jayachandra's kingdom in A.D. 1194 centred upon Kannauj.
Jayachandra, also known as Jaichand in Prithviraja Raaso, was the famous rival of Prithviraj Chauhan, Prithviraja III, of Dihilka/Ajayameru who was treacherously defeated by Ghori at the Battle of Tarrain in A.D. 1192 through Jaichand's tacit refusal to fight the Ghorid armies.
Another coin type was issued by the cadet branch of the Kalachuris which ruled from Ratnapura had the image of a lion fighting an elephant called as Gaja-Shardula in lieu of the Lakshmi image.
The coinage of Lakshmi type was probably inspired by the Gupta coinage and was the last 'Hindu' icon to occur on a North Indian coinage as the next epoch was the introduction of Islamic coinage which involved a different paradigm.

The Lakshmi image underwent progressive degradation with the parts of the deity's body showing division and separation with passage of time. This phenomenon is seen on many coinages and probably owes its origin to lack of royal patronage to the minters' art as the later dynasties were content with the crude copies of the original prototype.

Story of India Money Part XIII - Vijayanagara coinage

The Vijayanagara kingdom was found in 1336 A.D. by the warrior brothers, Harihara and Bukkaraya, the sons of Sangama Nayaka and the kingdom served as a bulwark against Islamic expansion in the South; Vijayanagara became the centre of cultural renaissance for the South India as the rulers held sway over vast areas of the south and became a byword for prosperity till the kingdom fell prey to a confederacy of Islamic sultanates in 1565 A.D. at the Battle of Talikota.

 It was ruled by four dynasties of rulers viz. the Sangamas (r. 1336-1485 AD), the Saluvas (r. 1485-1505 AD), the Tuluvas (r. 1505-1565 AD) and the Aravidus (r. 1565-1646 AD). 

All rulers issued gold coins with images of Saivite and Vaishnavite deities. 

The coins were divided into numerous denominations; gold as Gadyana or Varaha or Pon or Hon; Pratapa or Mada or Madai were other terms; silver coins were called Tara and copper coins were Pana, Jital or Kasu. 

The Varaha or Gadyana (English Pagoda) became the standard gold coin of South India with 3.4 grams as its weight; its half denomination was named Pratapa (Portuguese ~ Pardao) came in vogue in the later part of the kingdom. The Pagoda's lower denomination its one-tenth known as Panam or Fanam (weighing 0.36 gram) was equally famous and was issued in larger numbers for public consumption. 

The silver denomination was called Tara (Tar or Tare of foreign visitors) (weight ~ 0.2 gram)

Thus 1 Varaha = 2 Pratapa = 4 Katis = 10 Panams = 40 Hagas  (Gold)

    1 Panam (Gold) = 6 Taras (silver) = 18 Jitals (Copper)

The Paradigm of imperial Vijayanagara currency outlasted the Vijayanagara rulers and was used by the Deccan Sultanates (Golkonda and Bijapur), the Mughals, the Marathas, the Mysore rulers (including Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan), the colonial powers like Dutch, English (Madras Presidency) and French and a host of smaller dynasties called the Nayakas who were the subordinates of the Vijayanagara rulers. Thus, the currency formed the core of South Indian currency till the implementation of Uniform Indian Currency by the EIC in 1835.

Below (Top two images of Gold Varaha of Deva Raya I)
Middle two images Copper Jital of Krishna Deva Raya with image of Garuda
Last two images: Gold Varaha of Krishna Deva Raya with images of Balakrishna and reverse Nagari legend 'Shri Pratapa Krishna Deva Raya'

Krishnadeva Raya of Tuluva dynasty began the trend of issuing heavier gold gadyanas (weighing 7.65 grams) called Dodda Varaha with images of Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupati, his favourite deity after vanquishing the Gajapatis of Orissa.

 Vijayanagara Empire suffered a great reversal after Krishna Deva Raya's death and its defeat in the Battle of Tallikotta at the hands of the confederacy of the Deccan Sultanates. However, its coinage lasted a longer time even after the fall of the last dynasty of Aravidus who ruled from Chandragiri in 1646; the coinage in gold served later dynasties of Mysore Rajas, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and the East India Company as well who got Madras from the last ruler of Chandragiri and established their Madras Presidency from Fort St. George.
Hyder Ali issue a gold pagoda with the images of Shiva-Parvati (Hara-Gouri) with a Persian 'Ha' representing Hyder Ali on the reverse (see below)

The EIC issued a gold pagoda from Madras and named its Three Swami Pagoda (representing Lord Venkateshwara and his two wives  (See below)

 

Story of Indian Money - XII Rise of indigenous South Indian dynasties (225-1336 A.D.)

The Deccan region saw the rise of new dynasties after the fall of Satavahanas in the third century and their local successors in the Andhra region viz. Ikshavakus, Shalankayanas and Vishnukundins issued their own coinages. The Vishnukundins issued a typical coin with image of ‘a stylised lion’ on the obverse and a vase flanked by two lampstands within a rayed circle on the reverse.

In the Western Deccan, dynasties like the Traikutakas based their own coinage on the earlier prototype of the Western Kshatrapas. The Kadamba dynasty (r.345-525) of Banavasi in Uttara Kanara initiated a new gold coin called Padma tanka which revived the ancient technique of punch-mark minting with a central image of lotus deeply impressed upon the coin. These coins were emulated by many later dynasties like the Cholas, Yadavas of Devagiri and the Eastern Chalukyas.

The Kadambas were replaced by Chalukyas of Badami under Pulakeshin II (r. 610-642) who issued coins similar to the Vishnukundin prototype with his preferred epithet ‘Shri Satya’. Pulakeshin II helped his brother Vishnuvardhana capture Vengi in Andhra Pradesh and head a separate dynasty called the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Eastern Chalukyas issued gold Padma tankas with the central image of a boar representing ‘Varaha’.

The Tamil Desha region witnessed a decline of ruling dynasties of Chola, Pandya and Chera rulers between 3rd and 6th century as they were subdued by the Kalabhara dynasty. The Kalabharas were vanquished by the later Pallavas and the Pandyas. The Pallavas issued copper and lead coins with obverse images of the dynastic crest of the Pallavas, the bull. Some Pallava coins show images of lion replacing the bull.

The Chola power was revived in 850 A.D. by Vijayalaya who assumed the titles ‘Rajakesari’ and ‘Parakesari’ which used by all succeeding kings on their coins. His successors consolidated the gains by throwing of the Pallava yoke.  However, the earliest Chola ruler to issue a coin in his name was Uttama Chola (r.970-985) who issued gold and silver coins with ‘Uttama Chola’ written in Nagari for the first time on a South Indian coin! Another unique feature of Uttama Chola’s coin was the use of three royal crests viz. bow, fish and tiger symbolising the Chera, Pandya and Chola powers and symbolizing their unity under his leadership.

Rajaraja Chola (r.985-1014) increased the empire’s limits to Sri Lanka and Orissa.  He initiated a new coin type in all three metals with the image of a standing king on the obverse and sitting king on the reverse with ‘Sri Rajaraja’ in Nagari below his left arm.     

Rajendra Chola (r.1012-1044) spread his domains right till the Bengal coast assuming the title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’ (the Chola whose horses drank the waters of the Ganga). Rajaadhiraja Chola (r.1018-1054) issued similar coins during his rule.
Kulothunga Chola (r.1070-1120) was the heir to the joint fortunes of the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas and issued gold coins based on Eastern Chalukya coins with multiple punch marks. The central punch bears the image of two fishes, a tiger flanked by a bow and parasol and a fly whisk above; the marginal punches have two titles, ‘Kataikondacholam’ and ‘Malainadukondacholam’ referring to his conquest of Katai and Malainadu. After Kulothunga’s reign, the Cholas were soon overshadowed by Pandyas in the twelfth century.   

The Pandya coins show a consistent use of their dynastic symbol of ‘stylised fish’ throughout their history. The stylised fish emblem was also adopted by the Alupa dynasty of Dakshina Kanara (r.550-1500) who claimed to be descendants of Pandyas on their gold fanams along with the epithet ‘Sri Pandya Dhananjayam’.  The later Pandyas under Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya ushered the golden age of Pandyas in the thirteenth century and issued gold/copper coins with the legends ‘Sundara Pandya’ and ‘Vira Pandya’ indicating the last great phase of Pandyas.

Images (numbered from top): 

1st and 2nd images : Vishnukundin Copper issue with Lion on obverse and Conch symbol on reverse

             3rd image: Kulotthunga's Gold Punchmarked issue with central image of Varaha (Boar)

             4th and 5th Image: Raja Raja Chola I's Silver Kaasu with images of seated King and Standing deity with Nagari legend 'Sri Raja Raja'

              6th Image:  Rajendra Chola I's Silver Kaasu with image of Tiger, Fish and Bow representing his rule over Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras respectively 

       7th and 8th Images: Pallavas Copper issue with image of Bull and Chakra

      9th and 10th Images: Alupas' late Gold issue with images of two fishes flanked by two lamps and Chhatra (umbrella above) and Lotus below on obverse; Kannada Legend 'Shri Pandya Dhananjayam' on reverse